Nanoporous Hollow Carbon Spheres Derived from Fullerene Assembly as Electrode Materials for High-Performance Supercapacitors.

The energy storage performances of supercapacitors are expected to be enhanced by the use of nanostructured hierarchically micro/mesoporous hollow carbon materials based on their ultra-high specific surface areas and rapid diffusion of electrolyte ions through the interconnected channels of their mesoporous structures. In this work, we report the electrochemical supercapacitance properties of hollow carbon spheres prepared by high-temperature carbonization of self-assembled fullerene-ethylenediamine hollow spheres (FE-HS). FE-HS, having an average external diameter of 290 nm, an internal diameter of 65 nm, and a wall thickness of 225 nm, were prepared by using the dynamic liquid-liquid interfacial precipitation (DLLIP) method at ambient conditions of temperature and pressure. High temperature carbonization (at 700, 900, and 1100 °C) of the FE-HS yielded nanoporous (micro/mesoporous) hollow carbon spheres with large surface areas (612 to 1616 m2 g-1) and large pore volumes (0.925 to 1.346 cm3 g-1) dependent on the temperature applied. The sample obtained by carbonization of FE-HS at 900 °C (FE-HS_900) displayed optimum surface area and exhibited remarkable electrochemical electrical double-layer capacitance properties in aq. 1 M sulfuric acid due to its well-developed porosity, interconnected pore structure, and large surface area. For a three-electrode cell setup, a specific capacitance of 293 F g-1 at a 1 A g-1 current density, which is approximately 4 times greater than the specific capacitance of the starting material, FE-HS. The symmetric supercapacitor cell was assembled using FE-HS_900 and attained 164 F g-1 at 1 A g-1 with sustained 50% capacitance at 10 A g-1 accompanied by 96% cycle life and 98% coulombic efficiency after 10,000 consecutive charge/discharge cycles. The results demonstrate the excellent potential of these fullerene assemblies in the fabrication of nanoporous carbon materials with the extensive surface areas required for high-performance energy storage supercapacitor applications.

Recent Advancements in Novel Sensing Systems through Nanoarchitectonics.

The fabrication of various sensing devices and the ability to harmonize materials for a higher degree of organization is essential for effective sensing systems. Materials with hierarchically micro- and mesopore structures can enhance the sensitivity of sensors. Nanoarchitectonics allows for atomic/molecular level manipulations that create a higher area-to-volume ratio in nanoscale hierarchical structures for use in ideal sensing applications. Nanoarchitectonics also provides ample opportunities to fabricate materials by tuning pore size, increasing surface area, trapping molecules via host-guest interactions, and other mechanisms. Material characteristics and shape significantly enhance sensing capabilities via intramolecular interactions, molecular recognition, and localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR). This review highlights the latest advancements in nanoarchitectonics approaches to tailor materials for various sensing applications, including biological micro/macro molecules, volatile organic compounds (VOC), microscopic recognition, and the selective discrimination of microparticles. Furthermore, different sensing devices that utilize the nanoarchitectonics concept to achieve atomic-molecular level discrimination are also discussed.

Biomass Nanoarchitectonics for Supercapacitor Applications.

Nanoarchitectonics integrates nanotechnology with numerous scientific disciplines to create innovative and novel functional materials from nano-units (atoms, molecules, and nanomaterials). The objective of nanoarchitectonics concept is to develop functional materials and systems with rationally architected functional units. This paper explores the progress and potential of this field using biomass nanoarchitectonics for supercapacitor applications as examples of energetic materials and devices. Strategic design of nanoporous carbons that exhibit ultra-high surface area and hierarchically pore architectures comprising micro- and mesopore structure and controlled pore size distributions are of great significance in energy-related applications, including in high-performance supercapacitors, lithium-ion batteries, and fuel cells. Agricultural wastes or natural biomass are lignocellulosic materials and are excellent carbon sources for the preparation of hierarchically porous carbons with an ultra-high surface area that are attractive materials in high-performance supercapacitor applications due to high electrical and ion conduction, extreme porosity, and exceptional chemical and thermal stability. In this review, we will focus on the latest advancements in the fabrication of hierarchical porous carbon materials from different biomass by chemical activation method. Particularly, the importance of biomass-derived ultra-high surface area porous carbons, hierarchical architectures with interconnected pores in high-energy storage, and high-performance supercapacitors applications will be discussed. Finally, the current challenges and outlook for the further improvement of carbon materials derived from biomass or agricultural wastes in the advancements of supercapacitor devices will be discussed.

Phyllanthus emblica Seed-Derived Hierarchically Porous Carbon Materials for High-Performance Supercapacitor Applications.

The electrical double-layer supercapacitance performance of the nanoporous carbons prepared from the Phyllanthus emblica (Amala) seed by chemical activation using the potassium hydroxide (KOH) activator is reported. KOH activation was carried out at different temperatures (700-1000 °C) under nitrogen gas atmosphere, and in a three-electrode cell set-up the electrochemical measurements were performed in an aqueous 1 M sulfuric acid (H2SO4) solution. Because of the hierarchical pore structures with well-defined micro- and mesopores, Phyllanthus emblica seed-derived carbon materials exhibit high specific surface areas in the range of 1360 to 1946 m2 g-1, and the total pore volumes range from 0.664 to 1.328 cm3 g-1. The sample with the best surface area performed admirably as the supercapacitor electrode-material, achieving a high specific capacitance of 272 F g-1 at 1 A g-1. Furthermore, it sustained 60% capacitance at a high current density of 50 A g-1, followed by a remarkably long cycle-life of 98% after 10,000 subsequent charging/discharging cycles, demonstrating the electrode's excellent rate-capability. These results show that the Phyllanthus emblica seed would have significant possibilities as a sustainable carbon-source for the preparing high-surface-area activated-carbons desired in high-energy-storage supercapacitors.

Nelumbo nucifera Seed-Derived Nitrogen-Doped Hierarchically Porous Carbons as Electrode Materials for High-Performance Supercapacitors.

Biomass-derived activated carbon materials with hierarchically nanoporous structures containing nitrogen functionalities show excellent electrochemical performances and are explored extensively in energy storage and conversion applications. Here, we report the electrochemical supercapacitance performances of the nitrogen-doped activated carbon materials with an ultrahigh surface area prepared by the potassium hydroxide (KOH) activation of the Nelumbo nucifera (Lotus) seed in an aqueous electrolyte solution (1 M sulfuric acid: H2SO4) in a three-electrode cell. The specific surface areas and pore volumes of Lotus-seed-derived carbon materials carbonized at a different temperatures, from 600 to 1000 °C, are found in the range of 1059.6 to 2489.6 m2 g-1 and 0.819 to 2.384 cm3 g-1, respectively. The carbons are amorphous materials with a partial graphitic structure with a maximum of 3.28 atom% nitrogen content and possess hierarchically micro- and mesoporous structures. The supercapacitor electrode prepared from the best sample showed excellent electrical double-layer capacitor performance, and the electrode achieved a high specific capacitance of ca. 379.2 F g-1 at 1 A g-1 current density. Additionally, the electrode shows a high rate performance, sustaining 65.9% capacitance retention at a high current density of 50 A g-1, followed by an extraordinary long cycle life without any capacitance loss after 10,000 subsequent charging/discharging cycles. The electrochemical results demonstrate that Nelumbo nucifera seed-derived hierarchically porous carbon with nitrogen functionality would have a significant probability as an electrical double-layer capacitor electrode material for the high-performance supercapacitor applications.

Nanoarchitectonics of Lotus Seed Derived Nanoporous Carbon Materials for Supercapacitor Applications.

Of the available environmentally friendly energy storage devices, supercapacitors are the most promising because of their high energy density, ultra-fast charging-discharging rate, outstanding cycle life, cost-effectiveness, and safety. In this work, nanoporous carbon materials were prepared by applying zinc chloride activation of lotus seed powder from 600 °C to 1000 °C and the electrochemical energy storage (supercapacitance) of the resulting materials in aqueous electrolyte (1M H2SO4) are reported. Lotus seed-derived activated carbon materials display hierarchically porous structures comprised of micropore and mesopore architectures, and exhibited excellent supercapacitance performances. The specific surface areas and pore volumes were found in the ranges 1103.0-1316.7 m2 g-1 and 0.741-0.887 cm3 g-1, respectively. The specific capacitance of the optimum sample was ca. 317.5 F g-1 at 5 mV s-1 and 272.9 F g-1 at 1 A g-1 accompanied by high capacitance retention of 70.49% at a high potential sweep rate of 500 mV s-1. The electrode also showed good rate capability of 52.1% upon increasing current density from 1 to 50 A g-1 with exceptional cyclic stability of 99.2% after 10,000 cycles demonstrating the excellent prospects for agricultural waste stuffs, such as lotus seed, in the production of the high performance porous carbon materials required for supercapacitor applications.

1D materials from ionic self-assembly in mixtures containing chromonic liquid crystal mesogens.

Ionic self-assembly is a simple yet powerful method to obtain robust nanostructures. Herewith, we use mixtures of oppositely-charged porphyrins that can act as mesogens to form chromonic liquid crystals in water, i.e., molecular stacks with orientational (nematic) or positional (hexagonal) order. Electrostatic locking coupled with π-π interactions between aromatic groups within the stacks, together with inter-stack hydrogen bonding induce formation of all-organic crystalline nanofibers with high aspect ratio (a few tenths of nanometers in width but several tenths of micrometers in length) and that display branching. The nanofibers prepared from metal-free porphyrin units feature interesting optical properties, including an absorption spectrum that is different from the simple sum of the individual spectra of the components, which is attributed to a striking aggregation-induced chromism. When in contact with some polar organic solvents the materials become fluorescent, as a result of disaggregation. In a proof-of-concept, the obtained self-assembled one-dimensional (1D) materials were carbonized (yield ca. 60%) to produce nitrogen-doped carbon nanofibers that can be used as active electrode materials for energy storage applications.

Quick and Sensitive Detection of Water Using Galvanic-Coupled Arrays with a Submicron Gap for the Advanced Prediction of Dew Condensation.

We have demonstrated a highly sensitive moisture sensor that can detect water molecules, in addition to water droplets, and therefore, can predict dew condensation with high accuracy and high speed before the formation of water droplets, showing a better performance than a commercial hygrometer. Additionally, the dependence of the output response from the sensor on factors, such as the cooling rate of the sensor's surface and the vapor pressure in the chamber, that affect the performance of the moisture sensor has been clarified. The output response showed a clear dependence on the variation in cooling rate, as well as the vapor pressure. The higher the cooling rate and vapor pressure, the higher the output response. The output response showed a linear response to the change in the above-mentioned parameters. The higher sensitivity and accuracy of the moisture sensor, as a function of the physical parameters, such as cooling rates, vapor pressure, enables the sensor to perform in advanced detection applications. The sensor can be modified to the actual target regarding the surface nature and the heat capacity of the target object, making it more suitable for wide applications.

Nanoporous Carbon Materials Derived from Washnut Seed with Enhanced Supercapacitance.

Nanoporous activated carbons-derived from agro-waste have been useful as suitable and scalable low-cost electrode materials in supercapacitors applications because of their better surface area and porosity compared to the commercial activated carbons. In this paper, the production of nanoporous carbons by zinc chloride activation of Washnut seed at different temperatures (400-1000 °C) and their electrochemical supercapacitance performances in aqueous electrolyte (1 M H2SO4) are reported. The prepared nanoporous carbon materials exhibit hierarchical micro- and meso-pore architectures. The surface area and porosity increase with the carbonization temperature and achieved the highest values at 800 °C. The surface area was found in the range of 922-1309 m2 g-1. Similarly, pore volume was found in the range of 0.577-0.789 cm3 g-1. The optimal sample obtained at 800 °C showed excellent electrochemical energy storage supercapacitance performance. Specific capacitance of the electrode was calculated 225.1 F g-1 at a low current density of 1 A g-1. An observed 69.6% capacitance retention at 20 A g-1 indicates a high-rate capability of the electrode materials. The cycling stability test up to 10,000 cycles revealed the outstanding stability of 98%. The fascinating surface textural properties with outstanding electrochemical performance reveal that Washnut seed would be a feasible agro-waste precursor to prepare nanoporous carbon materials as a low-cost and scalable supercapacitor electrode.

High Surface Area Nanoporous Graphitic Carbon Materials Derived from Lapsi Seed with Enhanced Supercapacitance.

Nanoporous activated carbon materials derived from agro-wastes could be suitable low-cost electrode materials for high-rate performance electrochemical supercapacitors. Here we report high surface area nanoporous carbon materials derived from Lapsi seed agro-waste prepared by zinc chloride (ZnCl2) activation at 700 °C. Powder X-ray diffraction (pXRD) and Raman scattering confirmed the amorphous structure of the resulting carboniferous materials, which also incorporate oxygen-containing functional groups as confirmed by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM and TEM) analyses revealed the granular, nanoporous structures of the materials. High-resolution TEM (HR-TEM) confirmed a graphitic carbon structure containing interconnected mesopores. Surface areas and pore volumes of the materials were found, respectively, in the ranges from 931 to 2272 m2 g-1 and 0.998 to 2.845 cm3 g-1, and are thus superior to commercially available activated carbons. High surface areas, large pore volumes and interconnected mesopore structures of these Lapsi seed-derived nanoporous carbon materials lead to their excellent electrochemical supercapacitance performance in aqueous electrolyte (1 M H2SO4) with a maximum specific capacitance of 284 F g-1 at a current density of 1 A g-1. Furthermore, the electrodes showed high-rate capability sustaining 67.7% capacity retention even at high current density of 20 A g-1 with excellent cycle stability achieving 99% capacitance retention even after 10,000 charge-discharge cycles demonstrating the potential of Lapsi seed derived nanoporous carbons as suitable electrode materials in high-performance supercapacitor devices.

Nanoarchitectonics of Nanoporous Carbon Materials in Supercapacitors Applications.

High surface area and large pore volume carbon materials having hierarchical nanoporous structure are required in high performance supercapacitors. Such nanoporous carbon materials can be fabricated from organic precursors with high carbon content, such as synthetic biomass or agricultural wastes containing cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Using recently developed unique concept of materials nanoarchitectonics, high performance porous carbons with controllable surface area, pore size distribution, and hierarchy in nanoporous structure can be fabricated. In this review, we will overview the recent trends and advancements on the synthetic methods for the production of hierarchical porous carbons with one- to three-dimensional network structure with superior performance in supercapacitors applications. We highlight the promising scope of accessing nanoporous graphitic carbon materials from: (i) direct conversion of single crystalline self-assembled fullerene nanomaterials and metal organic frameworks, (ii) hard- and soft-templating routes, and (iii) the direct carbonization and/or activation of biomass or agricultural wastes as non-templating routes. We discuss the appealing points of the different synthetic carbon sources and natural precursor raw-materials derived nanoporous carbon materials in supercapacitors applications.

Enhancement of Sensitivity and Accuracy of Micro/Nano Water Droplets Detection Using Galvanic-Coupled Arrays.

A moisture sensor has been reported that detects invisibly small water droplets and distinguishes their particle size with high accuracy and high speed. This sensor uses narrow lines of dissimilar metals as electrodes, arranged with gaps of 0.5 to 10 µm. The working principle for this sensor is that it measures the galvanic current generated when a water droplet forms a bridge-like structure between the electrodes. In addition, the surface of the sensor was controlled by using hydrophilic polymer, GL, and hydrophobic polymer, PMMA. The study of the relationship between the contact angle, projected area of water droplets and current response from the sensor with a modified surface showed that in the case of GL, the contact angle was small (wettability increased) and the average value and distribution of the projected water droplet area and the sensor's response increased. This enhanced the sensor's sensitivity. On the other hand, in the case of PMMA, the contact angle was large (wettability decreased), the area of the water droplet and its distribution became small and the accuracy of discriminating the water droplet's diameter by the sensor enhanced. Therefore, by rendering sensor's surface hydrophilic and hydrophobic, the sensitivity and accuracy of the sensor could be enhanced.

Self-Assembled Fullerene Crystals as Excellent Aromatic Vapor Sensors.

Here we report the aromatic vapor sensing performance of bitter melon shaped nanoporous fullerene C60 crystals that are self-assembled at a liquid-liquid interface between isopropyl alcohol and C60 solution in dodecylbenzene at 25 °C. Average length and center diameter of the crystals were ca. 10 µm and ~2 µm, respectively. Powder X-ray diffraction pattern (pXRD) confirmed a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure with cell dimension ca. a = 1.4272 nm, and V = 2.907 nm³, which is similar to that of the pristine fullerene C60. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) confirmed the presence of a nanoporous structure. Quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) results showed that the bitter melon shaped nanoporous C60 performs as an excellent sensing system, particularly for aromatic vapors, due to their easy diffusion through the porous architecture and strong π⁻π interactions with the sp²-carbon.

Hierarchical heterostructure of Ag-nanoparticle decorated fullerene nanorods (Ag-FNRs) as an effective single particle freestanding SERS substrate.

A hierarchical heterostructure composed of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs: average diameter ∼10 nm) on fullerene nanorods (FNRs: average length ∼11 µm and average diameter ∼200 nm) was fabricated using a simple solution route. It was used as an effective single particle freestanding surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) substrate for the detection of target molecules (Rhodamine 6G: R6G). FNRs were formed ultra-rapidly (formation process completed in a few seconds) at a liquid-liquid interface of methanol and C60/mesitylene solution then Ag-NPs were grown directly on the surfaces of the FNRs by treatment with a solution of silver nitrate in ethanol. This unique hierarchical heterostructure allows efficient adsorption of target molecules also acting as an effective SERS substrate capable of detecting the adsorbed R6G molecules in the nanomolar concentration range. In this study, SERS spectra are acquired on an isolated single Ag-FNR for the detection of the absorbed molecule rather than from a bulk, large area film composed of silver/gold nanoparticles as used in conventional methods. Thus, this work provides a new approach for the design and fabrication of freestanding SERS substrates for molecular detection applications.

Photoinduced viscosity control of lecithin-based reverse wormlike micellar systems using azobenzene derivatives.

This report describes the controlled viscosity changes of photoresponsive reverse wormlike micellar systems formed by soybean lecithin (SoyPC), d-ribose, and azobenzene derivatives in decane. UV light irradiation produces a significant (150-fold) decrease in solution viscosity by triggering a structural transformation of the wormlike micelles. Subsequent visible light irradiation leads to recovery of the initial micellar structure and elevated solution viscoelasticity. This dramatic, reversible variation in solution viscosity by light irradiation can be applied to cosmetics, personal care products, and device components.

Quasi 2D Mesoporous Carbon Microbelts Derived from Fullerene Crystals as an Electrode Material for Electrochemical Supercapacitors.

Fullerene C60 microbelts were fabricated using the liquid-liquid interfacial precipitation method and converted into quasi 2D mesoporous carbon microbelts by heat treatment at elevated temperatures of 900 and 2000 °C. The carbon microbelts obtained by heat treatment of fullerene C60 microbelts at 900 °C showed excellent electrochemical supercapacitive performance, exhibiting high specific capacitances ca. 360 F g-1 (at 5 mV s-1) and 290 F g-1 (at 1 A g-1) because of the enhanced surface area and the robust mesoporous framework structure. Additionally, the heat-treated carbon microbelt showed good rate performance, retaining 49% of capacitance at a high scan rate of 10 A g-1. The carbon belts exhibit super cyclic stability. Capacity loss was not observed even after 10 000 charge/discharge cycles. These results demonstrate that the quasi 2D mesoporous carbon microbelts derived from a π-electron-rich carbon source, fullerene C60 crystals, could be used as a new candidate material for electrochemical supercapacitor applications.

Surfactant-free Fabrication of Fullerene C60 Nanotubules Under Shear.

A method for controlling the self-assembly of fullerene C60 molecules into nanotubules in the fcc phase, devoid of entrapped solvent, has been established in a thin film microfluidic device. The micron length C60 nanotubules, with individual hollow diameters of 100 to 400 nm, are formed under continuous flow processing during high shear micromixing of water and a toluene solution of the fullerene, in the absence of surfactant, and without the need for further down-stream processing. TEM revealed pores on the surface of the nanotubes, and the isolated material has a much higher response to small molecule sensing than that for analogous material formed using multistep batch processing.

Nanoporous carbon materials with enhanced supercapacitance performance and non-aromatic chemical sensing with C1/C2 alcohol discrimination.

We have investigated the textural properties, electrochemical supercapacitances and vapor sensing performances of bamboo-derived nanoporous carbon materials (NCM). Bamboo, an abundant natural biomaterial, was chemically activated with phosphoric acid at 400 °C and the effect of impregnation ratio of phosphoric acid on the textural properties and electrochemical performances was systematically investigated. Fourier transform-infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy confirmed the presence of various oxygen-containing surface functional groups (i.e. carboxyl, carboxylate, carbonyl and phenolic groups) in NCM. The prepared NCM are amorphous in nature and contain hierarchical micropores and mesopores. Surface areas and pore volumes were found in the range 218-1431 m2 g-1 and 0.26-1.26 cm3 g-1, respectively, and could be controlled by adjusting the impregnation ratio of phosphoric acid and bamboo cane powder. NCM exhibited electrical double-layer supercapacitor behavior giving a high specific capacitance of c.256 F g-1 at a scan rate of 5 mV s-1 together with high cyclic stability with capacitance retention of about 92.6% after 1000 cycles. Furthermore, NCM exhibited excellent vapor sensing performance with high sensitivity for non-aromatic chemicals such as acetic acid. The system would be useful to discriminate C1 and C2 alcohol (methanol and ethanol).

From Chromonic Self-Assembly to Hollow Carbon Nanofibers: Efficient Materials in Supercapacitor and Vapor-Sensing Applications.

Carbon nanofibers (CNFs) with high surface area (820 m2/g) have been successfully prepared by a nanocasting approach using silica nanofibers obtained from chromonic liquid crystals as a template. CNFs with randomly oriented graphitic layers show outstanding electrochemical supercapacitance performance, exhibiting a specific capacitance of 327 F/g at a scan rate of 5 mV/s with a long life-cycling capability. Approximately 95% capacitance retention is observed after 1000 charge-discharge cycles. Furthermore, about 80% of capacitance is retained at higher scan rates (up to 500 mV/s) and current densities (from 1 to 10 A/g). The high capacitance of CNFs comes from their porous structure, high pore volume, and electrolyte-accessible high surface area. CNFs with ordered graphitic layers were also obtained upon heat treatment at high temperatures (>1500 °C). Although it is expected that these graphitic CNFs have increased electrical conductivity, in the present case, they exhibited lower capacitance values due to a loss in surface area during thermal treatment. High-surface-area CNFs can be used in sensing applications; in particular, they showed selective differential adsorption of volatile organic compounds such as pyridine and toluene. This behavior is attributed to the free diffusion of these volatile aromatic molecules into the pores of CNFs accompanied by interactions with sp2 carbon structures and other chemical groups on the surface of the fibers.

Surfactant-Triggered Nanoarchitectonics of Fullerene C60 Crystals at a Liquid-Liquid Interface.

Here, we report the structural and morphological modulation of fullerene C60 crystals induced by nonionic surfactants diglycerol monolaurate (C12G2) and monomyristate (C14G2). C60 crystals synthesized at a liquid-liquid interface comprising isopropyl alcohol (IPA) and a saturated solution of C60 in ethylbenzene (EB) exhibited a one-dimensional (1D) morphology with well-defined faceted structure. Average length and diameter of the faceted rods were ca. 4.8 µm and 747 nm, respectively. Powder X-ray diffraction pattern (pXRD) confirmed a hexagonal-close packed (hcp) structure with cell dimensions ca. a = 2.394 nm and c = 1.388 nm. The 1D rod morphology of C60 crystals was transformed into "Konpeito candy-like" crystals (average diameter ca. 1.2 µm) when the C60 crystals were grown in the presence of C12G2 or C14G2 surfactant (1%) in EB. The pXRD spectra of "Konpeito-like" crystals could be assigned to the face-centered cubic (fcc) phase with cell dimensions ca. a = 1.4309 nm (for C12G2) and a = 1.4318 nm (for C14G2). However, clusters or aggregates of C60 lacking a uniform morphology were observed at lower surfactant concentrations (0.1%), although these crystals exhibited an fcc crystal structure. The self-assembled 1D faceted C60 crystals and "Konpeito-like" C60 crystals exhibited intense photoluminescence (PL) (∼35 times greater than pC60) and a blue-shifted PL intensity maximum (∼15 nm) compared to those of pC60, demonstrating the potential use of this method for the control of the optoelectronic properties of fullerene nanostructures. The "Konpeito-like" crystals were transformed into high surface area nanoporous carbon with a graphitic microstructure upon heat-treatment at 2000 °C. The heat-treated samples showed enhanced electrochemical supercapacitance performance (specific capacitance is ca. 175 F g-1, which is about 20 times greater than pC60) with long cyclic stability demonstrating the potential of the materials in supercapacitor device fabrication.